BES
Chapter 1
Tenses
English tenses are the form the verb takes to show the time of an action. Grammar tenses refer to the state of the verb. The state, or tense, of the verb explains the time of the action.
There are three major tenses in English. These include past, present, and future. Each of these tenses can explain an event that occurred in the past, an event that occurs in the present, or an event that will occur in the future.
There are three further types of tense: the simple, the continuous and the perfect. These tenses are sometimes referred to as aspects rather than tenses. The term aspect is used in grammar to talk about the form of a verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is completed or still continuing.
With all the conclusion there are 16 tenses. But some literature said that are 12 tenses. And here 16 tenses :
1. Simple present tense
This tenses are used to denote something that is fixed, habitual or an essential truth. Because it is often related to the incident at about past, present and future, this at least has the Tenses description for a certain time.
Form :
(+) Subject (s) + Verb1 + Object (o)
Example :
· I like apple.
(-) S+do/does not+Verb1+O
Example :
· I do not like apple.
(?) Do/Does + S + Verb1 + O
Example :
· Do I like apple?
2. Present Continuous Tense
This tenses are used to express an action which is actually being done at this time.
FORM:
(+) S + to be + Verb-ing + O
Example :
· Thery are whatcing a football game.
(-) S + to be + not + Verb-ing + O
Example :
· Thery are not whatcing a football game.
(?) to be + S + Verb-ing + O
Example :
· Are they whatcing a football game?
3. Present perfect tense
This tenses are used to express your experience. This sentence can used to say that you have never had a certain experience. Present Perfect Tense didn’t use to describe specific event.
FORM:
(+) S + Has/Have + Past Participle (V3)
Example :
· she has told sinta about it.
(-) S + Has/Have + not + past participle (V3)
Example :
· She hasn’t told sinta about it.
(?) Has/Have + S + past participle (V3)
Example :
· Has she told sinta about it.
4. Present Perfect Continues Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now.
Form :
( + ) s + have/has + been + V – ing
Example :
· She has been looking for andi.
( – ) s + have/has + not + been + V – ing
Example :
· She hasn’t been looking for andi.
( ? ) have/has + s + been + V – ing ?
Example :
· Has she been looking for andi?
5. Simple Past Tense
To express an activity that occurs at a point in the past.
Form:
( + ) s + V2 + Object
Example :
· She watched movie last night.
( – ) s + did + not + V1 + Object
Example :
· She didn’t watch movie last night.
( ? ) did + s + V1 + Object?
Example :
· Did she watch movie last night?
6. Past Continues Tense
This tense is used to say when we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + was/were + V – ing
Example :
· It was raining.
( – ) s + was/were + not + V – ing
Example :
· It wasn’t raining.
( ? ) was/were + s + V – ing ?
Example :
· Was it raining?
7. Past Perfect Tense
To declare an act that is completed events done in the past or explain an events which first occurred between the two in question.
Form :
( + ) s + had + v3
Example :
· Alexa had sung a lot of song.
( – ) s + had + not + v3
Example :
· Alexa had not sung a lot of song.
( ? ) had + s + v3
Example :
· Had Alexa sung a lot of song?
8. Past Perfect continues Tense
To declare an act or event that has been started in the past and is still going on in the past also.
Form :
( + ) s + had + been + V – ing
Example :
· I had been working all day.
( – ) s + had + not + been + V – ing
Example :
· I had not been working all day.
( ? ) had + s + been + V – ing ?
Example :
· Had I been working all day?
9. Simple Future Tense
To declare an act or event that will be done at the time will come.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + V1
Example :
· We shall go to the class now.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + V1
Example :
· We shall not go to the class now.
( ? ) shall/will + s + V1
Example :
· Shall we go to the class now?
10. Future Continues Tense
To declare an act or event that will be taking place at a time will come.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + be + v – ing
Example :
· They will be going to Jakarta tomorrow morning.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + be + V – ing
Example :
· They will not be going to Jakarta tomorrow morning.
( ? ) shall/will + s + be + V – ing
Example :
· Will they be going to Jakarta tomorrow morning?
11. Future Perfect Tense
To declare an act or event that already started in the past and soon to be completed in time dating.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + have + V3
Example :
· She will have kept her promise.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + have + V3
Example :
· She will not have kept her promise.
( ? ) shall/will + s + have + V3
Example :
· Will she have kept her promise?
12. Future perfect Continues Tense
To declare an act or event that already exist in the past but it is still possible to dillanjutkan at the time will come.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· They will have been looking for it.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· They will have not been looking for it.
( ? ) shall/will + s + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· Will they have been looking for it?
13. Past Future Tense
To declare an act or event that will come done in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + V1
Example :
· They should go now.
( – ) s + should/would + not + V1
Example :
· They should not go now.
( ? ) should/would + s + V1
Example :
· Should they go now?
14. Past Future Continues Tense
Past Future Continuous tells an action would be in progress in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + be + V – ing
Example :
· She should be working all day long.
( – ) s + should/would + not + be + V – ing
Example :
· She should not be working all day long.
( ? ) should/would + s + be + V – ing
Example :
· Should she be working all day long?
15. Past Future Perfect Tense
This tense is restates the action stated in Future Perfect Tense but with different time dimension, it is in past time whilst the Future Perfect is in future time (not happen yet).
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + have + V3
Example :
· Ani should have asked toni about it.
( – ) s + should/would + not + have + V3
Example :
· Ani should not have asked toni about it.
( ? ) should/would + s + have + V3
Example :
· Should Ani have asked Toni about it.
16. Past Future Perfect Continues Tense
Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense emphasizes on the course and the duration of the action. Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used to tell an action which would have been happening until a certain time (period) in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· She should have being worry about her son.
( – ) s + should/would + not + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· She should not have being worry about her son.
( ? ) should/would + s + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· Should she have being worry about her son?
Chapter 2
Conjunction
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases, or clauses in a particular sentence. It links these words or groups of words together, in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts of the sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these convey will be connected.
The three most common coordinate conjunctions are and, but, and or. There are seven in total. They are:
• For
• And
• Nor
• Or
• But
• Yet
• So
You can remember them using the mnemonic F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.
Example
1. For
· She ate vitamin for her health.
2. And
· Me and you are riding a bicycle.
3. Nor
· My father neither a farmer nor a teacher.
4. Or
· You can read or not?
5. But
· I like that song but i don’t like the singer
6. Yet
· I haven’t seen that movie yet, so don’t tell me how it ends.
7. So
· Today is your birthday so what do you want?
and also 3 types of conjunction are :
· Coordinating
Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. They may connect two words, two phrases, two independent clauses or two dependent clauses.
For example, in each of the following sentences the coordinating conjunction “and" connects equal words or groups of words:
Examples :
Connects two words: John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
Connects two phrases: The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low branch.
Connects two clauses: Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear them snickering at us lowly workers.
· Subordinating
Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions “when" or “why" about the main clause, or imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into adverbial subordinating clauses in different ways:
· I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)
· Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk. (why)
· I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)
Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two clauses it connects. Often, it comes at the beginning of the first clause.
· Correlative
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating conjunctions because they join sentence elements that are similar in importance.
The following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both, and: Both Rodney and Xing made the varsity team this year.
Neither, nor: Neither Rodney nor Xing made the varsity team this year.
Not only, but also: Not only did Rodney make the varsity team, but he also become one of the strongest players.
Remember these three types of conjunctions - coordinate, subordinate and correlative conjunctions - and you've got one part of speech down pat.
Chapter 3
Direct and Indirect speech
When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said. Direct speech divided into two types. They are direct speech and indirect speech.
1.Direct Speech / Quoted Speech
Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech). Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or
"Today's lesson is on presentations", she said.
.2.Indirect Speech / Reported Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct speech
Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.
He said he was going to the cinema.
Direct speech vs Reported speech:
Direct speech
speech
She says: "I like tuna fish."
She says that she likes tuna fish.
She said: "I'm visiting Paris next weekend"
She said that she was visiting Paris the following weekend.
Different types of sentences:
When you use reported speech, you either report:
statements
questions
requests / commands
other types
A. Reporting Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
pronouns
tense
place and time expression
1- Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.
Example:
She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes roast chicken.
2- Tenses
If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.
If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in reported speech.
Direct speech
Reported speech
(no backshift)
“I writepoems.”
He says that he writes poems.
(backshift)
“I writepoems.”
He said that he wrote poems.
No backshift
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
Example:
He says, “I write poems.” – He says that hewrites English.
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said).
Example:
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he washappy.
Examples of the main changes in tense:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
He said: "I amhappy"
Simple Past
He said that he washappy
Present Progressive
He said: "I'm looking for my keys"
Past Progressive
He said that he was looking for his keys
Simple Past
He said: "I visitedNew York last year"
Past Perfect Simple
He said that he had visited New York the previous year.
Present Perfect
He said: " I've lived here for a long time "
Past Perfect
He said that he had lived there for a long time
Past Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work when I arrived"
Past Perfect
He said that they had finished the work when he had arrived"
Past Progressive
He said: "I was playing football when the accident occurred"
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing football when the accident had occurred
Present Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playingfootball for two hours."
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing football for two hours
Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading a newspaper when the light went off"
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been reading a newspaper when the light had gone off
Future Simple (will+verb)
He said: "I will open the door."
Conditional (would+verb)
He said that he would open the door.
Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were rich"
Conditional (would+verb)
He said that hewould buy Mercedes if he had been rich"
The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, "She might be right." – He said that she might be right.
Other modal verbs may change:
Modal
Direct speech
Reported speech
can
"I can do it."
He said he could do it.
may
"May I go out?"
He wanted to know if he might go out.
must
"She mustapply for the job."
He said that she must/had to apply for the job.
will
"They willcall you."
He told her that they would call her.
3- Place, demonstratives and time expressions
Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.
In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time expressions.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Time Expressions
today
that day
now
then
yesterday
the day before
… days ago
… days before
last week
the week before
next year
the following year
tomorrow
the next day / the following day
Place
here
there
Demonstratives
this
that
these
those
B. Reporting Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
pronouns
place and time expressions
tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to:
transform the question into an indirect question
use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether
Types of questions
Direct speech
Reported speech
With question word (what, why, where, how...)
"Why" don’t you speak English?”
He asked me why I didn’t speak English.
Without question word (yes or no questions)
“Do you speak English?”
He asked me whether / if I spoke English.
C. Reporting requests / commands
When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:
pronouns
place and time expressions
Direct speech
Reported speech
“Nancy,do the exercise.“
He told Nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please."
He asked Nancy to give him her pen.
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")
Example:
She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy
For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)
For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).
D. Other transformations
Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
Example:
"You must read this book."
He advised / urged me to read that book.
The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example:
"Let’s go to the cinema."
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Main clauses connected with and/but
If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and or ‚but, put ‚that after the conjunction.
Example:
He said,“I saw her but she didn't see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen him.“
If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not use ‚that‘.
Example:
She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“
Chapter 4
GERUNDS
Common Verbs Followed by Gerunds.
A gerund is a noun formed by taking a verb and adding the suffix “-ing.” The gerund
form of “give,” for example, is “giving.” Gerunds are used as the objects of certain verbs.
Example 1: I enjoy playing tennis → INCORRECT: I enjoy to play tennis.
The verb enjoy is followed by a gerund (playing).
Enjoy cannot be followed by an infinitive.
Example 2: Joe quit smoking. or Joe gave up smoking.
Both sentences have the same meaning. Some phrasal verbs, such as give up, are followed by gerunds.
Verb + gerund
Postpone (put off)
Enjoy
Stop
Quit (give up)
Mind
Consider (think about)
Avoid
Mention
Keep (keep on)
Delay
Suggest
Discuss
Appreciate
Finish (get through)
Go + Gerund
Go is followed by a gerund in certain idiomatic expressions
to express, for the most part, recreational activities.
Go sailing
Go sightseeing
Go dancing
Go bowling
Go swimming
Go camping
Go hiking
Go golfing
Go shopping
Gerunds verbal is a word formed from a verb but functioning as a different part of speech.
A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that functions as a noun. Like an ordinary single-word noun, a gerund may be used as a
SUBJECT
DIRECT OBJECT
NOTE: Do not confuse gerunds with verbs (predicates) in the progressive tense.
GERUND
PREDICATE VERB
Even though is cooking and was scratching end in -ing, they are not gerunds because they are used as predicate verbs, not as nouns.
Recognize a gerund when you see one
Every gerund, without exception, ends in ing. Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to identify. The problem is that all present participles also end in ing. What is the difference?
Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers.
Read these examples of gerunds:
· Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion.
· Swimming = subject of the verb has been.
· Francisco's first love is swimming.
Prepositions Combinations followed by Gerunds
VERB + PREPOSITION + GERUND
1. Example: I apologize for eating the last cookie.
→ Verb + for doing (something)
- blame (someone) - forgive (someone) - have an excuse
- have a reason - be responsible - thank (someone)
2. Example: He was accused of stealing her bracelet.
→ Verb + of doing (something)
- be capable - for the purpose - be guilty - be tired
- instead - take advantage - take care
3. Example: I look forward to spending time with my grandmother.
→ Verb + to doing (something)
- be accustomed - in addition - be committed - be devoted
- object - be opposed - be used
The Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive [to + simple form of the verb]. It will include objects and/or modifiers. Here are some examples:
· To smash a spider.
· To kick the ball past the dazed goalie.
· To lick the grease from his shiny fingers despite the disapproving glances of his girlfriend Gloria.
Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples:
· To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap is Michelle's only goal tonight.
· To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence.
· Lakesha hopes to win the approval of her mother by switching her major from fine arts to pre-med.
· To win the approval of her mother functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb hopes.
· The best way to survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures is a sharp pencil to stab in your thigh if you catch yourself drifting off.
· To survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures functions as an adjective because it modifies way.
· Kelvin, an aspiring comic book artist, is taking Anatomy and Physiology this semester to understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body.
· To understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body functions as an adverb because it explains why Kelvin is taking the class.
Infinitives A verbal is a word formed from a verb but functioning as a different part of speech.An infinitive is a verbal formed by placing to in front of the simple present form of a verb.
Examples:
To swim to think to read to be to cut to turn
Infinitives may function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
A. Adjectival infinitives
Just like a single-word adjective, an infinitive used as an adjective always describes a noun.
An adjectival infinitive always follows the noun it describes.
EXAMPLE
Like gerunds and participles, infinitives may incorporate other words as part of their phrase.
EXAMPLE:
B. Adverbial infinitives
Just like a single-word adverb, an infinitive used as an adverb always describes a verb.
An adverbial infinitive usually occurs at the beginning or at the end of a sentence and does not need to be near the verb it describes.
EXAMPLE: Adverbial infinitive at sentence beginning
EXAMPLE: Adverbial infinitive at sentence end
C. Nominal infinitives
Like a single-word noun, a nominal infinitive may function as a
SUBJECT
DIRECT OBJECT
RETAINED OBJECT
APPOSITIVE
Punctuate an infinitive phrase correctly
When an infinitive phrase introduces a main clause, separate the two sentence components with a comma. The pattern looks like this:
Infinitive Phrase + , + Main Clause.
Read this example:
To avoid burning another bag of popcorn, Brendan pressed his nose against the microwave door, sniffing suspiciously.
When an infinitive phrase breaks the flow of a main clause, use a comma both before and after the interrupter. The pattern looks like this:
Start of Main Clause + , + Interrupter + , + End of Main Clause.
Here is an example:
Those basketball shoes, to be perfectly honest, do not complement the suit you are planning to wear to the interview.
When an infinitive phrase concludes a main clause, you need no punctuation to connect the two sentence parts. The pattern looks like this:
Main Clause + Ø + Infinitive Phrase.
Check out this example:
Janice and her friends went to the mall to flirt with the cute guys who congregate at the food court.
Chapter 5
Conditionals
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This usage is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".
A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three common types of conditional sentence:
1. If clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will). To express a simple statement of fact or intent.
e.g :
· If you help me, I will help you.
· If you teach me, I will teach you too.
2. If clause > past simple tense : main clause > would. To refer to a present unreal situation or to a situation in the future that the speaker thinks is unlikely to happen.
e.g :
· If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.
· If you asked me to go, I would like too.
3. if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have. To refer to the past and situations that did not happen.
e.g :
· If you had helped me, I would have helped you.
· If you had talked to me, I would have listened you.
Of course, it is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause:
Example :
· I will buy help you if you help me.
· I would buy a new car if I won the lottery.
· I would have helped you if you had helped me.
There is one more type of conditional, it is zero conditional. We use the zero conditional when we want to talk about facts or things that are generally true.
The zero conditional uses if or when and must be followed by the simple present or imperative.It is important to remember that this condition is not realated to the past, present or future - it only applies to things which are ALWAYS true.
Example :
· if you heat chocolate it melts.
· Chocolate melts if you heat it.
· The grass get wet when it is rain.
· When it’s rain the grass get wet.
Compossed by :
Adya
Dinda Rasya Pitri
Rinawati
Rini kinanti
Sonia
Tenses
English tenses are the form the verb takes to show the time of an action. Grammar tenses refer to the state of the verb. The state, or tense, of the verb explains the time of the action.
There are three major tenses in English. These include past, present, and future. Each of these tenses can explain an event that occurred in the past, an event that occurs in the present, or an event that will occur in the future.
There are three further types of tense: the simple, the continuous and the perfect. These tenses are sometimes referred to as aspects rather than tenses. The term aspect is used in grammar to talk about the form of a verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is completed or still continuing.
With all the conclusion there are 16 tenses. But some literature said that are 12 tenses. And here 16 tenses :
1. Simple present tense
This tenses are used to denote something that is fixed, habitual or an essential truth. Because it is often related to the incident at about past, present and future, this at least has the Tenses description for a certain time.
Form :
(+) Subject (s) + Verb1 + Object (o)
Example :
· I like apple.
(-) S+do/does not+Verb1+O
Example :
· I do not like apple.
(?) Do/Does + S + Verb1 + O
Example :
· Do I like apple?
2. Present Continuous Tense
This tenses are used to express an action which is actually being done at this time.
FORM:
(+) S + to be + Verb-ing + O
Example :
· Thery are whatcing a football game.
(-) S + to be + not + Verb-ing + O
Example :
· Thery are not whatcing a football game.
(?) to be + S + Verb-ing + O
Example :
· Are they whatcing a football game?
3. Present perfect tense
This tenses are used to express your experience. This sentence can used to say that you have never had a certain experience. Present Perfect Tense didn’t use to describe specific event.
FORM:
(+) S + Has/Have + Past Participle (V3)
Example :
· she has told sinta about it.
(-) S + Has/Have + not + past participle (V3)
Example :
· She hasn’t told sinta about it.
(?) Has/Have + S + past participle (V3)
Example :
· Has she told sinta about it.
4. Present Perfect Continues Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now.
Form :
( + ) s + have/has + been + V – ing
Example :
· She has been looking for andi.
( – ) s + have/has + not + been + V – ing
Example :
· She hasn’t been looking for andi.
( ? ) have/has + s + been + V – ing ?
Example :
· Has she been looking for andi?
5. Simple Past Tense
To express an activity that occurs at a point in the past.
Form:
( + ) s + V2 + Object
Example :
· She watched movie last night.
( – ) s + did + not + V1 + Object
Example :
· She didn’t watch movie last night.
( ? ) did + s + V1 + Object?
Example :
· Did she watch movie last night?
6. Past Continues Tense
This tense is used to say when we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + was/were + V – ing
Example :
· It was raining.
( – ) s + was/were + not + V – ing
Example :
· It wasn’t raining.
( ? ) was/were + s + V – ing ?
Example :
· Was it raining?
7. Past Perfect Tense
To declare an act that is completed events done in the past or explain an events which first occurred between the two in question.
Form :
( + ) s + had + v3
Example :
· Alexa had sung a lot of song.
( – ) s + had + not + v3
Example :
· Alexa had not sung a lot of song.
( ? ) had + s + v3
Example :
· Had Alexa sung a lot of song?
8. Past Perfect continues Tense
To declare an act or event that has been started in the past and is still going on in the past also.
Form :
( + ) s + had + been + V – ing
Example :
· I had been working all day.
( – ) s + had + not + been + V – ing
Example :
· I had not been working all day.
( ? ) had + s + been + V – ing ?
Example :
· Had I been working all day?
9. Simple Future Tense
To declare an act or event that will be done at the time will come.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + V1
Example :
· We shall go to the class now.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + V1
Example :
· We shall not go to the class now.
( ? ) shall/will + s + V1
Example :
· Shall we go to the class now?
10. Future Continues Tense
To declare an act or event that will be taking place at a time will come.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + be + v – ing
Example :
· They will be going to Jakarta tomorrow morning.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + be + V – ing
Example :
· They will not be going to Jakarta tomorrow morning.
( ? ) shall/will + s + be + V – ing
Example :
· Will they be going to Jakarta tomorrow morning?
11. Future Perfect Tense
To declare an act or event that already started in the past and soon to be completed in time dating.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + have + V3
Example :
· She will have kept her promise.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + have + V3
Example :
· She will not have kept her promise.
( ? ) shall/will + s + have + V3
Example :
· Will she have kept her promise?
12. Future perfect Continues Tense
To declare an act or event that already exist in the past but it is still possible to dillanjutkan at the time will come.
Form :
( + ) s + shall/will + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· They will have been looking for it.
( – ) s + shall/will + not + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· They will have not been looking for it.
( ? ) shall/will + s + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· Will they have been looking for it?
13. Past Future Tense
To declare an act or event that will come done in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + V1
Example :
· They should go now.
( – ) s + should/would + not + V1
Example :
· They should not go now.
( ? ) should/would + s + V1
Example :
· Should they go now?
14. Past Future Continues Tense
Past Future Continuous tells an action would be in progress in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + be + V – ing
Example :
· She should be working all day long.
( – ) s + should/would + not + be + V – ing
Example :
· She should not be working all day long.
( ? ) should/would + s + be + V – ing
Example :
· Should she be working all day long?
15. Past Future Perfect Tense
This tense is restates the action stated in Future Perfect Tense but with different time dimension, it is in past time whilst the Future Perfect is in future time (not happen yet).
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + have + V3
Example :
· Ani should have asked toni about it.
( – ) s + should/would + not + have + V3
Example :
· Ani should not have asked toni about it.
( ? ) should/would + s + have + V3
Example :
· Should Ani have asked Toni about it.
16. Past Future Perfect Continues Tense
Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense emphasizes on the course and the duration of the action. Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used to tell an action which would have been happening until a certain time (period) in the past.
Form :
( + ) s + should/would + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· She should have being worry about her son.
( – ) s + should/would + not + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· She should not have being worry about her son.
( ? ) should/would + s + have + been + V – ing
Example :
· Should she have being worry about her son?
Chapter 2
Conjunction
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases, or clauses in a particular sentence. It links these words or groups of words together, in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts of the sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these convey will be connected.
The three most common coordinate conjunctions are and, but, and or. There are seven in total. They are:
• For
• And
• Nor
• Or
• But
• Yet
• So
You can remember them using the mnemonic F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.
Example
1. For
· She ate vitamin for her health.
2. And
· Me and you are riding a bicycle.
3. Nor
· My father neither a farmer nor a teacher.
4. Or
· You can read or not?
5. But
· I like that song but i don’t like the singer
6. Yet
· I haven’t seen that movie yet, so don’t tell me how it ends.
7. So
· Today is your birthday so what do you want?
and also 3 types of conjunction are :
· Coordinating
Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. They may connect two words, two phrases, two independent clauses or two dependent clauses.
For example, in each of the following sentences the coordinating conjunction “and" connects equal words or groups of words:
Examples :
Connects two words: John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
Connects two phrases: The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low branch.
Connects two clauses: Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear them snickering at us lowly workers.
· Subordinating
Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions “when" or “why" about the main clause, or imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into adverbial subordinating clauses in different ways:
· I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)
· Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk. (why)
· I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)
Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two clauses it connects. Often, it comes at the beginning of the first clause.
· Correlative
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating conjunctions because they join sentence elements that are similar in importance.
The following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both, and: Both Rodney and Xing made the varsity team this year.
Neither, nor: Neither Rodney nor Xing made the varsity team this year.
Not only, but also: Not only did Rodney make the varsity team, but he also become one of the strongest players.
Remember these three types of conjunctions - coordinate, subordinate and correlative conjunctions - and you've got one part of speech down pat.
Chapter 3
Direct and Indirect speech
When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said. Direct speech divided into two types. They are direct speech and indirect speech.
1.Direct Speech / Quoted Speech
Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech). Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or
"Today's lesson is on presentations", she said.
.2.Indirect Speech / Reported Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct speech
Indirect speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.
He said he was going to the cinema.
Direct speech vs Reported speech:
Direct speech
speech
She says: "I like tuna fish."
She says that she likes tuna fish.
She said: "I'm visiting Paris next weekend"
She said that she was visiting Paris the following weekend.
Different types of sentences:
When you use reported speech, you either report:
statements
questions
requests / commands
other types
A. Reporting Statements
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
pronouns
tense
place and time expression
1- Pronouns
In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.
Example:
She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes roast chicken.
2- Tenses
If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.
If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in reported speech.
Direct speech
Reported speech
(no backshift)
“I writepoems.”
He says that he writes poems.
(backshift)
“I writepoems.”
He said that he wrote poems.
No backshift
Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular).
Example:
He says, “I write poems.” – He says that hewrites English.
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said).
Example:
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he washappy.
Examples of the main changes in tense:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
He said: "I amhappy"
Simple Past
He said that he washappy
Present Progressive
He said: "I'm looking for my keys"
Past Progressive
He said that he was looking for his keys
Simple Past
He said: "I visitedNew York last year"
Past Perfect Simple
He said that he had visited New York the previous year.
Present Perfect
He said: " I've lived here for a long time "
Past Perfect
He said that he had lived there for a long time
Past Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work when I arrived"
Past Perfect
He said that they had finished the work when he had arrived"
Past Progressive
He said: "I was playing football when the accident occurred"
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing football when the accident had occurred
Present Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playingfootball for two hours."
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing football for two hours
Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading a newspaper when the light went off"
Past Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been reading a newspaper when the light had gone off
Future Simple (will+verb)
He said: "I will open the door."
Conditional (would+verb)
He said that he would open the door.
Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were rich"
Conditional (would+verb)
He said that hewould buy Mercedes if he had been rich"
The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, "She might be right." – He said that she might be right.
Other modal verbs may change:
Modal
Direct speech
Reported speech
can
"I can do it."
He said he could do it.
may
"May I go out?"
He wanted to know if he might go out.
must
"She mustapply for the job."
He said that she must/had to apply for the job.
will
"They willcall you."
He told her that they would call her.
3- Place, demonstratives and time expressions
Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (i.e. the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.
In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time expressions.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Time Expressions
today
that day
now
then
yesterday
the day before
… days ago
… days before
last week
the week before
next year
the following year
tomorrow
the next day / the following day
Place
here
there
Demonstratives
this
that
these
those
B. Reporting Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
pronouns
place and time expressions
tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to:
transform the question into an indirect question
use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether
Types of questions
Direct speech
Reported speech
With question word (what, why, where, how...)
"Why" don’t you speak English?”
He asked me why I didn’t speak English.
Without question word (yes or no questions)
“Do you speak English?”
He asked me whether / if I spoke English.
C. Reporting requests / commands
When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:
pronouns
place and time expressions
Direct speech
Reported speech
“Nancy,do the exercise.“
He told Nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please."
He asked Nancy to give him her pen.
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")
Example:
She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy
For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)
For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).
D. Other transformations
Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.
Example:
"You must read this book."
He advised / urged me to read that book.
The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.
Example:
"Let’s go to the cinema."
1. He suggested going to the cinema.
2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Main clauses connected with and/but
If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and or ‚but, put ‚that after the conjunction.
Example:
He said,“I saw her but she didn't see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't seen him.“
If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not use ‚that‘.
Example:
She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“
Chapter 4
GERUNDS
Common Verbs Followed by Gerunds.
A gerund is a noun formed by taking a verb and adding the suffix “-ing.” The gerund
form of “give,” for example, is “giving.” Gerunds are used as the objects of certain verbs.
Example 1: I enjoy playing tennis → INCORRECT: I enjoy to play tennis.
The verb enjoy is followed by a gerund (playing).
Enjoy cannot be followed by an infinitive.
Example 2: Joe quit smoking. or Joe gave up smoking.
Both sentences have the same meaning. Some phrasal verbs, such as give up, are followed by gerunds.
Verb + gerund
Postpone (put off)
Enjoy
Stop
Quit (give up)
Mind
Consider (think about)
Avoid
Mention
Keep (keep on)
Delay
Suggest
Discuss
Appreciate
Finish (get through)
Go + Gerund
Go is followed by a gerund in certain idiomatic expressions
to express, for the most part, recreational activities.
Go sailing
Go sightseeing
Go dancing
Go bowling
Go swimming
Go camping
Go hiking
Go golfing
Go shopping
Gerunds verbal is a word formed from a verb but functioning as a different part of speech.
A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that functions as a noun. Like an ordinary single-word noun, a gerund may be used as a
SUBJECT
DIRECT OBJECT
NOTE: Do not confuse gerunds with verbs (predicates) in the progressive tense.
GERUND
PREDICATE VERB
Even though is cooking and was scratching end in -ing, they are not gerunds because they are used as predicate verbs, not as nouns.
Recognize a gerund when you see one
Every gerund, without exception, ends in ing. Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to identify. The problem is that all present participles also end in ing. What is the difference?
Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers.
Read these examples of gerunds:
· Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion.
· Swimming = subject of the verb has been.
· Francisco's first love is swimming.
Prepositions Combinations followed by Gerunds
VERB + PREPOSITION + GERUND
1. Example: I apologize for eating the last cookie.
→ Verb + for doing (something)
- blame (someone) - forgive (someone) - have an excuse
- have a reason - be responsible - thank (someone)
2. Example: He was accused of stealing her bracelet.
→ Verb + of doing (something)
- be capable - for the purpose - be guilty - be tired
- instead - take advantage - take care
3. Example: I look forward to spending time with my grandmother.
→ Verb + to doing (something)
- be accustomed - in addition - be committed - be devoted
- object - be opposed - be used
The Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive [to + simple form of the verb]. It will include objects and/or modifiers. Here are some examples:
· To smash a spider.
· To kick the ball past the dazed goalie.
· To lick the grease from his shiny fingers despite the disapproving glances of his girlfriend Gloria.
Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples:
· To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap is Michelle's only goal tonight.
· To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence.
· Lakesha hopes to win the approval of her mother by switching her major from fine arts to pre-med.
· To win the approval of her mother functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb hopes.
· The best way to survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures is a sharp pencil to stab in your thigh if you catch yourself drifting off.
· To survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures functions as an adjective because it modifies way.
· Kelvin, an aspiring comic book artist, is taking Anatomy and Physiology this semester to understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body.
· To understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body functions as an adverb because it explains why Kelvin is taking the class.
Infinitives A verbal is a word formed from a verb but functioning as a different part of speech.An infinitive is a verbal formed by placing to in front of the simple present form of a verb.
Examples:
To swim to think to read to be to cut to turn
Infinitives may function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
A. Adjectival infinitives
Just like a single-word adjective, an infinitive used as an adjective always describes a noun.
An adjectival infinitive always follows the noun it describes.
EXAMPLE
Like gerunds and participles, infinitives may incorporate other words as part of their phrase.
EXAMPLE:
B. Adverbial infinitives
Just like a single-word adverb, an infinitive used as an adverb always describes a verb.
An adverbial infinitive usually occurs at the beginning or at the end of a sentence and does not need to be near the verb it describes.
EXAMPLE: Adverbial infinitive at sentence beginning
EXAMPLE: Adverbial infinitive at sentence end
C. Nominal infinitives
Like a single-word noun, a nominal infinitive may function as a
SUBJECT
DIRECT OBJECT
RETAINED OBJECT
APPOSITIVE
Punctuate an infinitive phrase correctly
When an infinitive phrase introduces a main clause, separate the two sentence components with a comma. The pattern looks like this:
Infinitive Phrase + , + Main Clause.
Read this example:
To avoid burning another bag of popcorn, Brendan pressed his nose against the microwave door, sniffing suspiciously.
When an infinitive phrase breaks the flow of a main clause, use a comma both before and after the interrupter. The pattern looks like this:
Start of Main Clause + , + Interrupter + , + End of Main Clause.
Here is an example:
Those basketball shoes, to be perfectly honest, do not complement the suit you are planning to wear to the interview.
When an infinitive phrase concludes a main clause, you need no punctuation to connect the two sentence parts. The pattern looks like this:
Main Clause + Ø + Infinitive Phrase.
Check out this example:
Janice and her friends went to the mall to flirt with the cute guys who congregate at the food court.
Chapter 5
Conditionals
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This usage is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".
A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three common types of conditional sentence:
1. If clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will). To express a simple statement of fact or intent.
e.g :
· If you help me, I will help you.
· If you teach me, I will teach you too.
2. If clause > past simple tense : main clause > would. To refer to a present unreal situation or to a situation in the future that the speaker thinks is unlikely to happen.
e.g :
· If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.
· If you asked me to go, I would like too.
3. if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have. To refer to the past and situations that did not happen.
e.g :
· If you had helped me, I would have helped you.
· If you had talked to me, I would have listened you.
Of course, it is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause:
Example :
· I will buy help you if you help me.
· I would buy a new car if I won the lottery.
· I would have helped you if you had helped me.
There is one more type of conditional, it is zero conditional. We use the zero conditional when we want to talk about facts or things that are generally true.
The zero conditional uses if or when and must be followed by the simple present or imperative.It is important to remember that this condition is not realated to the past, present or future - it only applies to things which are ALWAYS true.
Example :
· if you heat chocolate it melts.
· Chocolate melts if you heat it.
· The grass get wet when it is rain.
· When it’s rain the grass get wet.
Compossed by :
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